From: The Life of Galileo
'Leben des Galilei' - (Bertold Brecht)

Setting:
Galileo's room in a pensione in Padua (north Italy)

Characters:
Galileo Galilei; Andrea; Andrea's mother.

Time: Padova, 1609...

Galileo - So, have you understood what I told you yesterday?
Andrea - What? That thing about Chippernico and his spinning?
Galileo -Yes!
Andrea - No. But why are you trying to make me understand this? It's too hard. I'm only ten years old; it's my birthday in October.
Galileo - What I really want is that even you should understand this. That's why I'm working so hard to make everyone understand and why I buy those books that cost an arm and a leg rather than paying the milkman.
Andrea - But in the evening I can see that the sun is in a different position than it was in the morning. So it doesn't stand still! Never, never, never!
Galileo - You see it?! But what do you see? Sweet F.A. You stare with the eyes of an idiot. That's not really looking. (He places the iron wash-stand in the middle of the room) This is the sun. Sit down. (Andrea sits down on the chair. Galileo stands behind him) Where's the sun? On the right or on the left?
Andrea - On the left.
Galileo - And how can it move to the right?
Andrea - Doddle! If you carry it there, it's obvious!
Galileo -it 's obvious? (He picks up the chair and its occupant and makes a half turn) Now where's the sun?
Andrea - On the right.
Galileo - And who's moved?
Andrea - The sun hasn't.
Galileo - What has moved then?
Andrea -Me.
Galileo - (moaning) No! Stupid! The chair!
Andrea - But I was sitting on it!
Galileo - Exactly. The chair is the world and you are standing on it.

...While this was happening in Padova, a few hundred kilometers south, in the Eternal City, a German Jesuit, Cristoforo Clavio, was teaching mathematics at the Collegio Romano (which was the Papal Institute for Scientific Research), in Piazza del Collegio Romano. On 10 January 1610 Galileo discovered through his telescope some celestial phenomena which seemed to confirm Copernico's theories. Father Clavio, who was also a man of science and had participated in the reform of the calendar ordered in 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII (1572-1585) [see The Calendar - NERONE January 1995], decided to follow Galilei's example. Using a telescope with a group of fellow Jesuits, was among the first scientists to be aware of the irrefutable proof evinced by Galileo to support Copernico's thesis. When on 5 March 1616, however, the Inquisition put this thesis on the Index of prohibited books, Clavio decided not to support Galileo any further, considering it too dangerous. When eight years later Cardinal Barberini (who also had interests in science and had earlier befriended Galileo), was elected pope, taking the name Urban VIII (1623-1644), Galileo persuaded himself to carry on his studies. Vithin ten years his theories became popular among the population. For example the Mardi Gras parades of 1632 were inspired by astronomy and the disagreement between Galileo and the Church. Urbano VIII could not, however, stop the Inquisition and on 22 June 1633 Galileo was forced to retract his theories. He lived out his last years in a house near Florence, a prisoner of the Inquisition, while in the rest of Europe (Amsterdam, Paris, Prague) the scientific comunity would eagerly pay 'an arm and a leg' for a copy of his much sought-after book: the 'Discorsi delle nuove scienze'. In 1637 the book finally crossed the border out of Italy and away from the power of Inquisition. Galileo died five years later. It was as late as 1775, 133 years after Galileo's death, that the first real observatory was built in Rome. Other European capitals, for example Paris and London, already had observatories by the mid-seventeenth century. Rome's observatories, however, although they had a late beginning, knew a golden period in the nineteenth century. Let's now look into their history in a little more detail and the possibilities today of discovering some traces of those that remain... The first observatory was built in 1775 on top of Palazzo Caetani (1564), on Via delle Botteghe Oscure 32 by Francesco Caetani, Duke of Sermoneta -Sermoneta, c.50 km S-E of Rome, could be a good idea for a day trip. In the medieval nucleus it's possible to visit the Cathedral and the Caetani family's Fortress-. Under the supervision of father Gian Battista Audiffredi (a Domenican monk) the observatory housed in Palazzo Caetani had tremendous success thanks to Audiffredi's studies of the eclipse, the "occultazioni stellari" and the transito of Mercury and Venus across the Sun. This observatory, however, did not survive the end of the century. Unfortunately no traces of it remain today. In the same period (1787) another observatory was built on the orders of Pope Pius VI (1775-1799) inside the Collegio Romano (which temporarily was no-longer belonging to the Jesuits- as at the time of Cristoforo Clavio -as they had been disbanded by Pope Clement XIV in 1773). The construction was directed by father Giuseppe Calandrelli from Zagarolo. The observatory was built in 1787 on top of the square tower (today the torre Calandrelli) which can still be seen from the Piazza del Collegio Romano at the eastern corner of the College's facade. When in 1814 Pope Pius VII (1800-1823) restored their order, the Jesuits returned to their historical residence and, under the supervision of father Angelo Secchi, this observatory became an important center of studies. Due to its increasing activity this centre needed a larger observatory and more laboratories. The observatory was built on top of the columns of the church nf St Ignazio. These columns were originally built to support a dome which, however, was never realized. The laboratories and studios where father Secchi and his collaborators did their research were built on top the perimeter walls. Here they studied the new science of astrophysics setting the foundations for the classification of the stars which is still valid even today in its general outline. When you look at the Torre Calandrelli from the Piazza del Collegio Romano you will notice an instrument used to measure wind speed spinninf atop the tower. This place, in fact, is the only observatory site inside the city walls which still keeps its original function as a scientific laboratory. Today the Torre Calandrelli is Rome's metereological station. Here the temperature, the humidity and the wind speed are measured and put on display each day in a window along Via del Caravita, 7 (the entrance for the metereological offices) together with other meteorological information. An interesting visit to the Torre Calandrelli can be made either to see the city's metereological observatory and to walk around the places where the Jesuits, from father Clavio to father Secchi, studied the night sky. Visits to the tower are granted to groups of between 7 (min) and 15 (max) people. Remember that this a working laboratory so only make a visit if you are really interested. To make an appointment you can call the Centre for Metereological Studies of Rome from Mon-Fri 9am-1pm at the number 6793376 or 6793804 and ask for Mrs. Menaglia. The observatory and the laboratories on the church of St Ignazio have, however, fallen into neglect but hopefully one day they will be restored. A new Science Museum made up from objects from the old Museum of the Collegio Romano (Kirckerian museum) and the laboratories of the Jesuits, will soon be open in the courtyard of the Collegio Romano. The last important observatory inside the city walls was also constructed in the nineteenth century by professor Feliciano Scarpellini, professor of astronomy at Rome University. He built his observatory on top of the tower of Nicolo V on the Campidoglio. This tower can be still seen from Via dei Fori imperiali behind the Carcere Mamertino. In 1922 because of the pollution, the artificial streets lighting and the vibration of the traffic, it was decided to buid an observatory on Monte Mario (inaugurated in 1938) and to transport all the old instruments there. In 1951 the Sun Tower was built, this tower was at that time one of the most important in the world. A tragic fire inside the observatory on the 14 July 1958 brought to an end this historic phase of Roman astronomy within the city walls. However other developments were taking place in the hills around Rome (see below). In the museum of the Astronomical and Copernican Observatory on Monte Mario (inaugurated in 1973 for the fifth centenary of the birth of Copernico) it's possible to see many historical records of the life and work of Copernico, collected between 1873 and 1877 as well as other astronomical instruments. The museum, located on Viale del Parco Mellini 84, can be visited on wednesdays and saturdays from 9am-12noon but a reservation is required. Call 347056 for further information.

UNDER THE SKY OF THE CASTELLI ROMANI
Monte Porzio Catone is a village located about 25 jm S-E of Rome. Here in 1985 there was added to the observatory a special museum of Astronomy which was specifically aimed at supporting students and those interested in the subject with a special exhibition explaining its history. Here can be found not only instruments from the historical Roman observatories, but also a library with some 15.000 books, astronomical journals- some dating from the XVIII century- maps, prints, photographs, posters and slide reproductions taken by modern space probes. To get to Monte Porzio Catone take the COTRAL BUS (public transport that serves the region of Lazio) from Anagnina (metro station on metro line A- southern end-of-line).

THE OBSERVATORIES INSIDE THE VATICAN
In the XVI century a station for the observation of the night sky was built by Pope Gregory XIII on the Torre dei Quattro Venti also known as the Torre Gregoriana. It can be visited. At the end of XIX century Pope Leo XIII built another observatory on the Torre Leonina but in 1936, for the same reasons as above, the Vatican astronomers moved to Castel Gandolfo. At Castel Gandolfo, in the Alban Hills, there is the Pope's summer residence. This town with a beautiful view on the Lake of Albano could make nice afternoon trip away Rome. You can easily get to Castel Gandolfo by a local train from Termini Station.